⇒ They seek name recognition in local press - most members of the House have a weekly column in the local paper

⇒ E.g. Charles Diggs Jnr had a radio show

⇒ Pork barrel politics - members of Congress seek to “deliver the goods” to their constituents

⇒ Representatives take positions on certain issues that affect constituents

• Senator Sanders took pro-2nd amendment stances on gun control due to him representing Vermont where hunting is popular.

⇒ In order to secure funds for their constituencies and to increase their own influence, members of Congress need to form coalitions - known as log-rolling (the trading of favours and the attaching of amendments to legislation that guarantees the passage of a bill)

• Raising the minimum wage in 2007 was only achieved after billions of dollars of pork (deferral funding) was attached
• Republican Senator Susan Collins supported the Affordable Care Act only after promises were made on establishing health care clinics in her home state of Maine

⇒ However:

• The re-election rate is very high for members of Congress (97% in the House in 2016). Safe seats may equate to house representatives not needing to keep the folks back home happy
• Earmark reform has limited the ability of members of Congress to supply goodies to their constituents
• Re-districting has further decreased the competitive nature of house elections. This has resulted safe seats that allow the holder of this seat to hold firm to their own beliefs, as they do not need to reach out to moderate/undecided voters. Many Tea party republicans hold seats in safe, conservative areas and so are under no pressure to change their views or principles

⇒ The whips in the US have no ‘string’. This is due to the fact that parties cannot threaten to deselect candidates because constituents have control of this through congressional primaries

⇒ They are under so much pressure from their constituents that they cannot maintain an obedience to the party line (also the parties are decentralised and ideologically weak)

⇒ Some members of Congress have views on particular issues that will not allow them to follow the party line (some Democrate are committed pro-lifers even though the party is pro-choice, however over time they have been forced to toe the party line)

⇒ The President can use his friends - the Vice President, party leaders and chief of staff can put the Presidents case forward

⇒ The President can use personal persuasion - telephone calls (e.g. Johnson is said to have called a Congressman at the time of a crucial vote); entertaining (e.g. Reagan used to invite key congressmen to breakfast at the White House before important votes); offering 'pork' (e.g. federal contracts/financial help for local projects/help in the election campaign)

⇒ The issue of abortion provides an excellent illustration (e.g. in the 80s many liberal Senators had come under attack from pro-life groups whilst candidates who back such groups gained significantly)

⇒ By forming PACs/Super PACs, pressure groups can maximise their financial contributions and impact to and on candidates' campaigns

⇒ Also see our notes on:

• The Senate and House of Representatives
• Power
• Legislative Process
• Representation
• Effectiveness