1. Dual
⇒ Dual Federalism (1780s – 1920s) was an era in which state governments had significant power
⇒ Fits with Grodzin's layer cake theory, separation of state and federal roles appeared clearly
2. Co-operative
⇒ (1930s – 1960s)- an era in which the federal govt became increasingly powerful
⇒ Described as the marble cake period, when state and federal responsibilities became meshed together
⇒ Associated with Roosevelt (New Deal to fund social programmed that some states couldn’t afford) and Johnson (Great Society)
⇒ Associated with categorical grants- involved aid being given to states with strings attached
3. New Federalism
⇒ An era in which power was devolved back to the states
⇒ Categorical grants gave way to block grants, where states would be given more of a say in how federal funds were spent
⇒ Clinton- "The Era of Big Government is over", Reagan- "Government is the problem"
⇒ Coincided with widespread distrust of Washington following Watergate in the 1970's
⇒ SCOTUS began finding in favour of the states (United States vs. Lopez 1995)
⇒ Federal funding for state programmes was slashed, as cons became increasingly sceptical of federal social programmes such as the New Deal (In the 1990's many states ran budget surpluses, meaning they needed less federal help)
⇒ Only went so far in reversing centralisation (Reagan, champion of 'state rights', took away highway funding for states who didn’t set the legal drinking age at 21)
⇒ Can be called 'coercive federalism'- indicating central govt still called the shots
⇒ 9/11 led to the Patriot act, which allowed a domestic spying operation. The Department of Homeland security usurped state power in all manner of areas
⇒ Economic downturn curtailed many states' abilities to fund their own social programmes (when Clinton left office there was a state govt surplus of $47 billion, when the .com bubble burst, 31 states cut spending and 18 increased taxes)
⇒ Bush admin went on a spending spree (highways act cost $286 billion over 5 years)
⇒ Moral agenda pursued by republicans nationalised laws in areas previously seen as state issues (restrictions placed on late term abortions)
⇒ ACA mandated that states provide insurance exchanges for people to be able to buy healthcare
⇒ His 2009 stimulus demonstrates how reliant states were on the federal govt for funding, although not all states accepted the money
⇒ SCOTUS has ruled elements of the ACA unconstitutional, as well as the Voting Rights Act 1965 that demanded that southern states ask permission from Congress when they wish to change electoral laws
⇒ Federal govt turned record budget surpluses into record deficits
⇒ States rebelled against the Bush admin's lack of action by forging ahead on expanding health insurance programmes to cover children and on limiting carbon emissions (California)
⇒ Initiatives and referendums in 2016 show that states still control much of the mroal agenda (especially gay rights and on legalising marijuana)
⇒ Reps turned against Bush and Obama for their centralising tendencies and adopted Tea Parties ideological call for 'limited govt'
⇒ Despite increasing centralisation, states still retain far more autonomy than regions of the UK
⇒ United or divided govt: gridlock between President and Congress over environmental policy resulted in California going ahead with carbon emission cuts
⇒ The Constitution- Powers not specifically designated to a tier of govt are fought over more than clearly defined powers (any of the POTUS powers)
⇒ The issue- Federal govt has a much greater say in foreign affairs whilst state govts take the lead on gay marriage. Workers pay had become an issue for both federal (raise minimum wage) and state govt (tax breaks for ethical firms). Failure to repeal Obamacare in 2017 leaves the states free to expand healthcare benefits
⇒ Economy- Great Depression required federal govt intervention. Budget surpluses in the 90s led to state govts becoming less reliant on the federal govt for grants. States require federal funding for Homeland Security projects post-9/11. Obama's stimulus package in 2009 saw the federal govt taking a role in trying to reverse the recession
⇒ Political culture- Roosevelt saw big govt as the solution to the Great Depression, whilst Reagan declared that "Big Government is the problem". 90s Reps favoured states rights. Bush jnr favoured strong Presidency with broad powers
⇒ Events- 9/11 led to focus on national security. Led to creation of dept of homeland security, yet another federal govt dept. Hurricane Katrina demonstrated federal govts ineptness at dealing with all crisis- hurricane prone states developed their own plans. The Credit crunch involved banks operating across state lines, and thus needed a federal level response